Canada’s climate ambition is codified in the Canadian Net-Zero Emissions Accountability Act, which legally binds the nation to achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. This milestone demands a sweeping transformation of the country’s energy systems, with the electricity sector as the primary lever. Decarbonizing the grid requires replacing fossil-fuel generation with clean, reliable, and dispatchable power sources. Within this framework, Canada’s indigenous nuclear technology—the CANDU reactor—emerges not merely as a legacy asset but as a strategic, large-scale low-carbon workhorse that already avoids tens of millions of tonnes of CO₂ annually. Its role is poised to expand through refurbishment, new builds, and next-generation designs that align with both federal and provincial net-zero roadmaps.

The act establishes legally binding five-year milestone targets, with the first due in 2030, creating a clear trajectory for emissions reductions. The electricity sector, which currently accounts for roughly 10% of Canada’s total emissions, must move to net-zero by 2035 under the proposed Clean Electricity Regulations. This timeline leaves limited room for error. Nuclear power, with its high capacity factors and proven lifecycle performance, provides the firm, dispatchable clean energy needed to backstop variable renewables like wind and solar. Without CANDU and other nuclear technologies, Canada would need to rely on natural gas with carbon capture, large-scale hydro storage, or other emerging solutions that have yet to demonstrate scalability at the required pace.

Understanding CANDU Reactor Technology

The Physics of Heavy Water

CANDU stands for CANada Deuterium Uranium, a design that uses heavy water (deuterium oxide) as both neutron moderator and primary coolant. The core consists of a large cylindrical vessel called a calandria, which houses hundreds of horizontal pressure tubes. Fuel bundles—composed of natural uranium dioxide pellets clad in zirconium alloy—are loaded into these tubes. Pressurized heavy water circulates through the tubes to remove fission heat, while a separate, lower-temperature heavy water bath in the calandria acts as the moderator. This arrangement creates an exceptional neutron economy: the heavy water slows fission neutrons just enough to sustain a chain reaction using unenriched uranium, eliminating the need for costly enrichment facilities.

The physics behind this design is elegant. Ordinary light water absorbs too many neutrons to sustain a chain reaction with natural uranium, which is why most commercial reactors require enriched uranium (typically 3–5% U-235). Heavy water, with its deuterium nucleus, absorbs far fewer neutrons, enabling the use of natural uranium fuel. This characteristic has profound implications for fuel cycle independence, cost structure, and energy security. Canada has its own uranium reserves in Saskatchewan, the highest-grade deposits in the world, and does not need to rely on foreign enrichment services.

On-Power Refuelling and Capacity Factors

The horizontal fuel-channel design enables on-power refuelling. Robotic refuelling machines push fresh fuel bundles into one end of a channel while receiving spent bundles from the other end—all while the reactor continues generating electricity at full power. This capability translates into industry-leading capacity factors, routinely exceeding 90% over multiyear operating cycles. Unlike light-water reactors that require multi-week outages for refuelling, CANDU plants maintain near-continuous operation, providing stable baseload power essential for grid reliability as variable renewables expand.

The practical implications are significant. A CANDU unit running at 90% capacity factor generates roughly 7,900 MWh per megawatt of installed capacity each year, compared to about 4,000 MWh for a typical solar farm and 1,800 MWh for onshore wind in average Canadian conditions. This means that a single 900 MW CANDU unit produces as much energy annually as roughly 2,000 MW of solar capacity, but without the intermittency challenges. The on-power refuelling capability also allows operators to optimize fuel burn-up and adjust core reactivity in real time, extending the interval between planned outages and reducing the cost of electricity generation.

Historical Development and Current Fleet Status

Pioneering Origins

The CANDU story began in the 1950s at Atomic Energy of Canada Limited’s Chalk River Laboratories. The first prototype, the Nuclear Power Demonstration (NPD) reactor, achieved criticality in 1962 at Rolphton, Ontario, generating 22 MW. Commercial-scale units followed: Pickering A (1968), Bruce A (1971), and later the four-unit Darlington station (1990–1993). These stations set new global benchmarks for size, reliability, and safety. Today, Canada operates 19 power reactors across Ontario (Pickering, Bruce, Darlington) and New Brunswick (Point Lepreau), all of them CANDU or CANDU-derivative designs. Together, they supply roughly 15% of Canada’s electricity and over 50% of Ontario’s power, displacing the equivalent of more than 80 million tonnes of CO₂ each year relative to combined-cycle natural gas plants.

The evolution of the CANDU fleet reflects a continuous improvement philosophy. Early units at Pickering A faced challenges with pressure tube integrity and steam generator performance, leading to extended outages and retrofits. These lessons were systematically incorporated into later designs. The Darlington station, completed in the early 1990s, represented the culmination of this learning curve with advanced control systems, improved fuel handling, and enhanced safety features. Pickering B units, which came online between 1983 and 1986, incorporated design changes that improved reliability and extended operating life. This iterative approach to design and operation has given Canadian nuclear engineers a deep well of practical experience that few other countries possess.

Major Refurbishment Programs

A significant life-extension program is underway at both Darlington and Bruce sites. Ontario Power Generation (OPG) is executing the Darlington Refurbishment project, replacing pressure tubes, calandria tubes, and steam generators across four units to extend operations by about 35 years. At Bruce Power, the Life-Extension Program and Major Component Replacement programme are similarly modernizing the eight-unit station. Combined, these investments exceed $25 billion in public and private capital, securing clean baseload capacity well into the 2060s. Unit 1 at Bruce Power returned to service in 2019, with subsequent units following on schedule. The Point Lepreau station in New Brunswick completed a major refurbishment in 2012 and is licensed to operate until 2042.

The scale of these refurbishment projects is enormous. At Darlington, each unit refurbishment involves replacing approximately 480 pressure tubes, each 6.3 metres long and weighing about 28 kilograms, along with feeder pipes, calandria tubes, and steam generators. The work is performed using specialized tooling developed by Canadian engineers, much of it automated to reduce worker dose exposure and improve quality. The Darlington refurbishment has achieved over 65% Canadian content, supporting domestic supply chains and high-skilled employment across Ontario. The project management approach, based on lessons from earlier refurbishments at Pickering and Point Lepreau, has delivered each unit on schedule and within budget, providing a replicable model for future nuclear projects.

Environmental Performance and Climate Alignment

Minimal Carbon Footprint

Nuclear power produces virtually no direct greenhouse gas emissions during operation. Lifecycle assessments from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe place nuclear energy’s median carbon intensity at 12–15 gCO₂eq/kWh—comparable to wind power and lower than solar photovoltaic systems. For Canada, where the grid still includes coal and natural gas in many provinces, expanding clean firm power is indispensable.

The lifecycle analysis includes emissions from uranium mining, milling, fuel fabrication, plant construction, operation, and eventual decommissioning. Even accounting for these upstream and downstream activities, nuclear power remains one of the lowest-carbon electricity sources available. In Ontario, the combination of nuclear (60% of generation) and hydroelectricity (25%) has created one of the cleanest electricity grids in the world, with an average emissions intensity of roughly 25 gCO₂eq/kWh. By comparison, the Alberta grid, which relies heavily on natural gas and still retains some coal capacity, has an intensity of about 540 gCO₂eq/kWh. Replacing just one of Alberta’s remaining coal units with a CANDU plant would eliminate roughly 3 million tonnes of CO₂ emissions annually, equivalent to taking 650,000 cars off the road.

Grid Inertia and Reliability

Canada’s net-zero plan recognizes that a grid with high penetration of intermittent renewables still requires dispatchable, non-emitting backup. CANDU plants fill that role: they run 24/7, can adjust output modestly (typically 5–10% for load following), and provide rotational inertia that stabilizes grid frequency. The federal Clean Electricity Regulations, expected to be finalized in 2025, aim for a net-zero electricity sector by 2035—achievable only if proven technologies like CANDU continue operating and new nuclear capacity is added.

The concept of grid inertia is often overlooked in discussions about clean energy. Inertia provides a buffer against sudden changes in generation or load, preventing rapid frequency swings that could cause blackouts. Synchronous generators like those in nuclear and hydro plants inherently provide this inertia through their rotating mass. Wind and solar farms, which connect to the grid through inverters, do not provide the same physical inertia unless equipped with specialized controls. As conventional generators retire, maintaining adequate inertia becomes a technical challenge. CANDU plants, with their large synchronous generators and ability to provide primary frequency response, are valuable assets for maintaining grid stability as the energy transition progresses.

Fuel Flexibility and Sustainable Fuel Cycle

Burning Alternative Fuels

A key advantage of CANDU is its ability to consume fuel that other reactors cannot efficiently use. The high neutron economy permits burning recycled uranium recovered from light-water reactor spent fuel, as well as mixed oxide (MOX) fuel containing plutonium. Demonstration projects in collaboration with China (Qinshan) and South Korea (Wolsong) have validated these cycles. This flexibility opens pathways for reducing the volume and radiotoxicity of nuclear waste while extending the energy extracted from mined uranium.

The implications for waste management are significant. A typical light-water reactor generates about 30 tonnes of spent fuel per year, containing roughly 0.9% plutonium and 1% recycled uranium by mass. If that spent fuel were reprocessed and the recovered materials used in CANDU reactors, the energy extracted could increase by 25–30% while reducing the final waste volume by roughly 80%. The plutonium, which is the primary driver of long-term radiotoxicity in spent fuel, would be consumed in the CANDU reactor, leaving a waste form that is simpler and shorter-lived. Canadian Nuclear Laboratories is actively researching advanced fuel cycles that leverage this synergy between CANDU and light-water reactor fuel cycles, potentially creating a more sustainable approach to nuclear waste management.

Thorium Potential

Canada possesses abundant thorium resources, and CANDU reactors can be configured to operate on a thorium-uranium fuel cycle. Thorium offers advantages including reduced long-lived waste and enhanced proliferation resistance. Research at Canadian Nuclear Laboratories and universities continues to explore thorium fuel options. While commercial deployment is not imminent, the CANDU design’s inherent fuel flexibility keeps that door open as international partnerships and fuel market conditions evolve.

Thorium is three to four times more abundant in the Earth’s crust than uranium, and Canada holds significant reserves in areas like Elliot Lake, Ontario, and the Athabasca Basin in Saskatchewan. A thorium fuel cycle in a CANDU reactor would involve using thorium dioxide as the fertile material, with a small amount of fissile material (either enriched uranium or plutonium) to initiate and sustain the chain reaction. The thorium cycle produces less plutonium and fewer minor actinides than the traditional uranium cycle, resulting in a waste product with a shorter radiological hazard lifetime—from hundreds of thousands of years to perhaps a few hundred. While engineering and economic hurdles remain, the potential for thorium fuels to reduce long-term waste burdens and improve proliferation resistance continues to drive research interest.

Economic and Social Contributions

High-Value Employment

The CANDU fleet supports approximately 76,000 direct and indirect jobs across the nuclear industry, spanning uranium mining in Saskatchewan, fuel fabrication (via Cameco), engineering design (AtkinsRéalis), component manufacturing, and plant operations. Communities such as Kincardine (near Bruce Power), Clarington (Darlington), and Saint John (Point Lepreau) have built robust local economies around their reactors, with stable tax revenues and high-skilled employment that sustains families. According to the Canadian Nuclear Association, the sector contributes roughly $17 billion annually to Canada’s GDP.

The employment profile of the nuclear industry is notable for its diversity of skill levels and pathways. Plant operators typically complete a multi-year training program that includes simulator hours, on-the-job experience, and licensing exams. Maintenance tradespeople include millwrights, electricians, and instrumentation technicians who undergo specialized nuclear training. Engineers work in fields ranging from reactor physics and thermal hydraulics to project management and regulatory affairs. The industry also supports a robust ecosystem of suppliers, from heavy manufacturing firms like Laker Engineering and John Cockerill to specialized service providers like Framatome and Westinghouse. The Bruce Power site alone employs about 4,000 people directly and supports an additional 18,000 indirect jobs across Ontario, with an average compensation that exceeds the provincial median by 40%.

Cost-Competitive Electricity

Electricity from CANDU plants is among the most cost-effective when analyzed over the full lifecycle. Once capital investment is recovered, the marginal cost of generation is very low—typically below 3 cents per kilowatt-hour. This contributes to Ontario’s competitive electricity rates for industrial and residential consumers. Furthermore, Canada exports nuclear expertise globally: CANDU reactors operate in Argentina, South Korea, Romania, and China, supporting over $1.2 billion in annual exports of fuel, components, and engineering services.

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) from existing CANDU plants, including operating costs, fuel, maintenance, and capital recovery for refurbishment, is estimated at roughly 6–8 cents per kWh. This compares favourably with new natural gas plants (5–7 cents) and is competitive with wind and solar when system costs for integration and backup are included. The Ontario Independent Electricity System Operator (IESO) has consistently ranked nuclear as one of the lowest-cost sources of electricity in the province when accounting for its reliability and dispatchability. The economic case for new CANDU builds, while requiring higher upfront capital, becomes more attractive when carbon pricing and grid integration costs are factored into the comparison.

Modernisation and Next-Generation Designs

CANDU MONARK: A New Large Reactor

Building on the legacy, AtkinsRéalis (formerly SNC-Lavalin’s Candu Energy) has introduced the CANDU MONARK, a 1,000 MW Generation III+ design. It features enhanced safety, a 70-year design life, and simplified modular construction methodology aimed at reducing on-site labour and schedule risk. The MONARK retains the heavy water technology and on-power refuelling capability but incorporates modern digital control systems and passive safety features. OPG is exploring the MONARK for potential new build at the Darlington site alongside its planned small modular reactor (SMR).

The MONARK design incorporates lessons from nearly six decades of CANDU operating experience. Key improvements include a simplified reactor building layout that reduces concrete volume by 30% compared to earlier designs, modular pressure tube assemblies that can be factory-fabricated and shipped to site, and advanced diagnostics that enable predictive maintenance. The safety case has been strengthened with additional passive cooling systems that can remove decay heat without AC power for 72 hours. The 70-year design life, achieved through materials selection and corrosion allowance, matches the expected life of modern hydroelectric dams and ensures that the capital investment is amortized over a long period, reducing the per-unit electricity cost.

Small Modular Reactors and Advanced Concepts

Canada’s SMR Action Plan, launched in 2020, embraces multiple reactor technologies. The leading contenders include GE Hitachi’s BWRX-300 (a light-water SMR selected by OPG for Darlington), but Canadian laboratories are also pursuing advanced designs that borrow from CANDU’s heavy water heritage. For example, the Integrated Molten Salt Reactor and Supercritical Water-Cooled Reactor concepts under development at Canadian Nuclear Laboratories aim to build on Canada’s deep heavy water and natural uranium supply chains. These innovations could provide exportable low-carbon technology to countries with modest electrical grids.

The SMR approach offers several advantages over large-scale reactors. The modular design allows for factory fabrication and serial production, reducing on-site construction time and lowering financial risk due to shorter capital deployment schedules. SMRs can be deployed incrementally, matching capacity additions to demand growth. For remote communities and mining operations in Canada’s northern regions, SMRs could replace diesel generation, reducing both emissions and fuel-supply logistics costs. The IAEA has identified SMRs as a promising technology for decarbonizing hard-to-abate sectors, and Canada’s regulatory framework, with its technology-neutral approach, provides a supportive environment for their deployment.

Safety, Regulation, and Public Trust

Defence in Depth

Safety is embedded at every level of a CANDU plant through defence-in-depth. Multiple physical barriers include ceramic fuel pellets that retain fission products, robust zirconium alloy cladding, pressure tubes, and a thick steel-lined concrete containment building. A unique safety feature is the separate low-pressure moderator system: even if the primary coolant circuit fails, the large volume (~300 tonnes) of cool heavy water moderator can absorb decay heat for hours, providing an extended grace period for operator action. Emergency core cooling systems, filtered venting, and redundant power supplies further protect the public and environment.

The defence-in-depth philosophy extends beyond physical barriers to include multiple layers of protection: conservative design margins, safety systems with redundant and diverse components, emergency operating procedures, and severe accident management guidelines. CANDU plants are designed to withstand extreme external events, including earthquakes, tornadoes, and aircraft impacts. The containment building, typically a post-tensioned concrete structure with a steel liner, is designed to maintain integrity under high pressure and temperature conditions. The separate moderator system, unique to CANDU, provides a passive heat sink that can prevent core damage in scenarios where other cooling systems are unavailable. This inherent safety characteristic is one reason why CANDU reactors have a strong safety record compared to other reactor designs.

Independent Oversight

Canada’s independent nuclear regulator, the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC), oversees every phase of a reactor’s lifecycle—from site preparation to decommissioning. The CNSC’s rigorous licensing processes and public hearing model ensure that local communities and Indigenous Nations have a voice. Transparent communication about radiation risks, emergency planning, and environmental monitoring continues to be essential for maintaining a social licence. Recent polling shows growing public acceptance of nuclear energy, driven by climate urgency and successful refurbishment projects.

The CNSC operates under the Nuclear Safety and Control Act, which establishes it as a quasi-judicial tribunal with the authority to make binding decisions. Its licensing process involves multiple stages: site preparation, construction, operation, and decommissioning, each requiring a separate licence with specific conditions. The CNSC conducts regular inspections, requires annual reports, and has the authority to suspend operations if safety requirements are not met. Public hearings, held in communities near nuclear facilities, allow citizens and Indigenous groups to present their views and concerns. The CNSC’s decisions are subject to judicial review, ensuring accountability. This rigorous oversight framework has built public confidence in the safety of Canada’s nuclear operations.

Used Fuel Management: A Responsible Approach

The stewardship of used nuclear fuel remains a frequently raised challenge. Canada’s CANDU reactors produce a relatively small volume of spent fuel annually—about 1,500 bundles per year per unit. After 60 years of operation, all produced fuel would fill roughly seven Olympic-sized swimming pools. Currently, spent fuel is safely stored in licensed wet pools and dry canister systems at each reactor site, monitored by the CNSC.

The long-term plan is embodied by the Nuclear Waste Management Organization (NWMO), which is advancing the Adaptive Phased Management approach leading to a deep geological repository in a stable rock formation. After extensive community engagement, two potential host sites remain in Ontario: the Wabigoon Lake Ojibway Nation–Ignace area and the Saugeen Ojibway Nation–South Bruce area. The NWMO expects to select the final site in 2024, begin construction later this decade, and open the repository in the early 2040s. This consent-based siting process is internationally recognized as a model for responsible waste management.

The deep geological repository approach is based on a multi-barrier system designed to isolate used fuel from the biosphere for hundreds of thousands of years. The fuel bundles would be placed in copper-coated steel containers, surrounded by bentonite clay buffer, and emplaced in tunnels excavated in stable granite bedrock approximately 500 metres below surface. The NWMO has invested over $2 billion in research and site characterization, including underground laboratories at Chalk River and the Lake Huron region. The organization’s consent-based siting process, which requires the willing host community and Indigenous Nation to agree to the project, has been praised by international bodies including the OECD Nuclear Energy Agency as a best practice in stakeholder engagement.

Policy Framework Driving Nuclear Expansion

Federal Incentives

Federal and provincial policies increasingly recognize nuclear as a strategic asset for meeting climate goals. The 2023 federal budget introduced a refundable Clean Electricity Investment Tax Credit eligible for nuclear new build and refurbishment projects, alongside the Clean Technology Manufacturing Tax Credit. The Canada Infrastructure Bank has earmarked at least $1 billion for nuclear power, and the Clean Electricity Regulations will create a compliance framework that values non-emitting generation like CANDU output.

The Clean Electricity Investment Tax Credit provides a 15% refundable credit for eligible investments in clean electricity generation systems, including nuclear power plants. This applies to both refurbishment of existing units and construction of new facilities. The Clean Technology Manufacturing Tax Credit offers a 30% credit for investments in equipment used for manufacturing clean technologies, including nuclear reactor components. Together, these incentives reduce the capital cost burden for new nuclear projects, improving their financial viability. The Canada Infrastructure Bank’s support for nuclear projects, including its capacity to provide low-cost financing, further de-risks investment. These policy signals are critical for attracting the private capital needed to fund new nuclear capacity.

Provincial Commitments

Ontario’s “A Framework for Clean Energy” outlines a pathway that includes continued operation of the existing fleet and a commitment to explore large-scale new nuclear. New Brunswick’s strategic energy plan positions Point Lepreau as a potential hydrogen production hub, leveraging its low-carbon electricity for electrolysis. Saskatchewan and Alberta, provinces with substantial fossil fuel legacies, are evaluating CANDU and advanced reactors as part of their decarbonisation roadmaps. This multi-jurisdictional alignment is creating a stable investment environment for decades to come.

Ontario’s framework includes a target of 60% clean energy by 2030, with nuclear providing the backbone. The province is evaluating new nuclear capacity beyond the existing fleet, including a potential new CANDU MONARK unit at Darlington and the BWRX-300 SMR project. New Brunswick’s plan includes a strategic assessment of new nuclear technologies, with a focus on leveraging Point Lepreau’s existing infrastructure and workforce. Saskatchewan has signed an MOU with the Government of Canada, Ontario, and New Brunswick to collaborate on SMR deployment, with a specific focus on the BWRX-300 design. Alberta, despite its history of fossil fuel development, has the Alberta Nuclear Advantage initiative exploring the potential for nuclear power to displace coal and natural gas in the province’s electricity system. This alignment across provinces, combined with federal support, creates a powerful policy momentum.

Overcoming Challenges and the Road Ahead

Capital Costs and Financing

Despite its strong track record, CANDU technology faces hurdles. The high upfront capital cost of new builds—estimated at $10–12 billion for a MONARK class unit—remains a barrier, especially compared to low-cost natural gas and subsidised renewables. Long lead times for regulatory approval and construction demand sustained political and financial commitment. However, lessons from the Darlington refurbishment are reducing risk: OPG’s project has achieved 65% Canadian content and is on schedule and budget, demonstrating that rigorous project management can deliver nuclear infrastructure cost-effectively.

Financing models for new nuclear projects are evolving. The traditional utility-owned, utility-financed model places the entire construction risk on the electricity consumer. Newer approaches include public-private partnerships, where government assumes some risk in exchange for a share of project returns; rate-base financing, where construction costs are recovered through electricity rates over the project life; and build-own-operate-transfer models with international partners. The UK’s regulated asset base model for new nuclear projects, which allows developers to earn returns during construction, is being studied by Canadian policymakers. Canada’s strong sovereign credit rating and the perceived stability of nuclear investments are attracting interest from pension funds and institutional investors seeking long-term, low-carbon assets.

Supply Chain and Workforce

Supply chain constraints for heavy forgings and specialised components need strategic attention as global nuclear ambitions ramp up. Canada’s skilled workforce—anchored by Canadian Nuclear Laboratories, the University of Ontario Institute of Technology, and other institutions—provides the foundation. Nuclear training programs at colleges in Ontario and New Brunswick are producing the next generation of operators and engineers. The industry is also actively recruiting women and Indigenous peoples to diversify its talent pool.

The global nuclear supply chain is concentrated in a few key players, including Japan Steel Works for large forgings, Framatome for fuel assemblies, and Westinghouse for control systems. Canada has developed domestic capabilities in certain areas, including pressure tube fabrication (at the Canadian Nuclear Laboratories’ Chalk River facility), fuel bundle production (Cameco’s Port Hope conversion facility), and steam generator manufacturing (Laker Engineering). However, large components like reactor pressure vessels and steam generators for new builds may need to be imported, requiring careful logistics planning and potential tariff exposure. The industry is addressing workforce shortages through partnerships with colleges and universities, including the Nuclear Engineering program at the University of Ontario Institute of Technology and the Power Engineering Technology program at Durham College. Targeted recruitment of women and Indigenous peoples, coupled with cultural competency training and mentorship programs, is broadening the talent pipeline and ensuring the industry reflects the communities it serves.

Global Context and Competition

Internationally, the IAEA consistently identifies nuclear energy as necessary for deep decarbonisation. CANDU’s unique attributes—natural uranium fuel, on-power refuelling, and high capacity factors—give Canada a competitive edge in export markets. Countries like Romania, Argentina, and Turkey are evaluating new CANDU builds. By coupling domestic refurbishments with new MONARK-class plants and leveraging fuel cycle advantages, Canada can build a clean, reliable electricity system that serves as a model for the world while honouring its net-zero obligation. CANDU power plants, far from being a relic of the past, are a decisive tool for securing Canada’s sustainable energy future.

The global nuclear landscape is shifting. Countries that had previously turned away from nuclear, like Japan and Germany, are reconsidering their positions due to energy security concerns and climate urgency. Emerging economies like Indonesia, Vietnam, and Bangladesh are exploring nuclear for the first time. Canada has a unique value proposition in this market: a proven reactor design using natural uranium fuel that is suitable for countries without enrichment capabilities. The CANDU MONARK, as a Generation III+ design, competes with offerings from Russia (VVER), South Korea (APR-1400), and the United States (AP1000). Canada’s reputation for independent regulation, transparent governance, and a strong nuclear safety culture provides a competitive advantage in countries seeking to develop sustainable nuclear programmes. By continuing to invest in its own fleet and in advanced nuclear technologies, Canada can position itself as a global leader in clean energy technology while simultaneously achieving its domestic net-zero goals.